The earliest traces of human existence in India, so far discovered, go back to the period between 4,00,000 and 2,00,000 BC. This is suggested by the large number of primitive stone tools found in the Soan Valley and in  South India.

Primitive man in the Paleolithic (Stone) Age, which lasted till 8,000 BC, used tools and implements of rough stone. Man was essentially a food gatherer and depended on nature for food.

Mohenjo - Daro

In the North-western parts of the Indian subcontinent, there flourished a highly developed civilization. It derived it's name from the main river of that region, 'Indus '. At it's peak, it stretched across the whole of Sindh, Baluchistan, Punjab, Northern Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Gujarat. The cities were far more advanced than their counterparts in prehistoric Egypt, Mesopotamia or anywhere else in Western Asia.

The Aryans - migrated from the North-west to the area called Sapta-Sindhava (the land of the seven rivers) - Eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and the fringes of western Uttar Pradesh. All that is known of the half millennium following the fall of the Indus Civilization comes from the Vedas, a collection of sacred hymns attributed to the Aryans. They prepared the first and oldest collection of mystical hymns, known as the Rig Veda, which is the only source of information on early Vedic life. The other three Vedas, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva were written much later.

A vedic Compilation 

Society described by the three great epics, Ramayan, Mahabarath and the Upanishad was merely part of Indian mythology. Now, it has acquired historical roots. It is upon them that Hinduism is based. Indeed, the Bhagwad Gita, which is a part of the Mahabharat, is wholly concerned with religion and righteous duty and it is to Hindus what the Bible is to Christians. These epics give us a picture of the history of that period.

The epic society was divided into four castes :
1. Brahmins or priests who are responsible for handing down the Vedas, for setting an  example of rightful living.
2. Warriors: whose duty it was to fight and to rule.
3. Merchants: artisans and peasants
4. Out castes, whose duty it was to perform unclean tasks like scavenging, fishing or handling carrion.

The Mauryan empire was established under the leadership of Chandragupta Maurya (322 BC - 296 BC). The knowledge of this period is derived from the writings of the Greek, Megasthenes, who wrote the  Indica. He wrote, not only about the capital city of Pataliputra, but also about the empire as a whole and about the splendour and order he saw. Chandragupta conspired with Chanakya, the minister of the Nandas, to overthrow the Nandas. After that, he negotiated with Seleucus Nicator, the Greek Viceroy of Alexander, who ceded Eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area west of the Indus.

Under Chandragupta Maurya, the whole of northern India was united. Trade flourished, agriculture was regulated, weights and measures were standardised. Money first came into use. Taxation, sanitation and famine relief became the concerns of the State. His son and successor, Bindusara (296 BC - 273 BC), extended the kingdom further and conquered the south as far as Mysore.

India, south of the Vindhya mountains and the Narmada river, was known as the Deccan. Further south was the land of the Dravidas . From ancient times, these lands were home to Indians of non-Aryan origin.

Ellora Caves

SatavahanasThe Satavahanas (28 BC - 250 AD), also known as the Andhras, emerged as an independent power in the Deccan in the first century BC. It was founded by Simuka (65 BC - 25 BC). His son, Satakarni (25 BC - 20 AD), succeeded him. Under the Satavahanas, many Buddhist worshipping halls (Chaityas) and monasteries (Viharas) were cut out from rocks. Some famous examples are Amravati and Nagarjuna Konda. Buddhist cave temples were also cut at the now-famous sites of Ajanta and Ellora.

With the Satavahanas providing lines of communication between the north and the south, the isolation of the southern kingdoms ended. Significantly, trade and exchange of ideas increased.

Ajanta Caves

In the fourth century AD a new Indian dynasty, the Guptas, arose in Magadha and established a large kingdom over the greater part of northern India. This period is also referred to as the 'Classical Age' of ancient India, and lasted for more than 200 years. The knowledge of this period comes from Fa-hien, a Chinese traveler. 'Gupta' India was far in advance of any country in the known world. There was a great Buddhist university at Nalanda in Bihar, which attracted students from all over Asia.

The Guptas were in origin probably a family of the wealthy landowners who gradually gained political control in the region of Magadha. The founder of the Gupta dynasty, Chandragupta I ascended the throne in about 320 AD. The kingdom was enlarged by his son, Samudragupta, who fought against a number of kings and annexed territories in the northern part of the sub-continent. However, his direct political control was only over the Gangetic valley, as compared with the Mauryan kings. It was during the reign of Samudragupta's successor, Chandragupta II (also known as Vikramaditya), that the Gupta ascendancy was at it's peak. He conducted a victorious campaign in western India against the Shakas (338 AD - 409 AD). He made a matrimonial alliance with the Vakataka dynasty, the successors to the Satavahana power, thus ensuring friendly relations to the south of his domain. Chandragupta II is also remembered for his patronage of learning and arts.

Chandragupta I

From the decline of the Guptas until the rise of Harshavardhana in the early seventh century, the political scene is confused and there are few records to illuminate us. Tribes of Hunas gradually moved over the mountains into North-western India. The name is etymologically related to the classical 'Huns', but they were probably only remotely connected, if at all, with the hordes of Attila. By early sixth century, Huna ruler Toramana and Mihirakula claimed Punjab and Kashmir as part of their kingdom.

Once again, India experienced migrations of people from Central Asia and Iran. Some of them remained in Northern India and others moved further to the south and the west. This disturbance led to changes in the caste structure, with the emergence of new sub-castes.

Nalanda University

In the second half of the seventh century, efforts at empire building were made by Harshavardhana (or Harsha). He belonged to the Pushabhukti family, who ruled in Thaneshwar, north of Delhi. His reign is comparatively well-documented, thanks to his court poet, Bana, who composed an account of his rise to power, Harshacharita. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Hieun Tsang, who visited India during his reign, also left a lengthy account of his travels.

Harsha moved his capital from Thaneshwar to Kanauj. The area under his control covered many parts of Northern India, including the Punjab, eastern Rajasthan and the Ganga valley as far as Assam. But, his empire included territories of distant feudal kings too. Harsha governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas. The kings he conquered paid him revenue and sent soldiers when he fought war. They accepted his sovereignty, but remained rulers over their own kingdoms. Harsha's ambition of extending his power to the Deccan and South India were stopped by Pulakesin II, the Chalukya king of Vatapi in northern Mysore.

The major kingdoms of this period were the Chalukyas, the Pallavas and the Pandyas. The Chalukyas built their kingdom on the ruins of the Vakatakas, who in turn had built theirs on the remains of the Satavahanas. They established their capital at Vatapi (modern Badami). The eastern part of the Satavahana kingdom (in the deltas of the rivers Krishna and Godavari), had been conquered by the Ikshvakus in the third century AD. They were supplanted by the Pallavas, whose authority extended over both Southern Andhra and Northern Tamil Nadu. They set up their capital at Kanchi (modern Kanchipuram), which became a town of temples and Vedic learning under them. To the south of the Pallavas were the Pandyas of Madurai, who had established their control in the region by the sixth century.

Kailashnathar

Elephanta Caves

The Pallava kings constructed a number of stone temples in the seventh and eighth centuries. The most famous are the ones at Mahabalipuram. Cave architecture reached excellence in the Kailashnath temple at Ellora in the eighth century. The Chalukyas erected numerous temples at Aihole from about 610 AD. The work was continued in Badami and Pattadakal. For example - Papanatha temple (c. 680 AD) and Virupaksha temple (c. 740 AD).

Three powerful kingdoms arose between 750 AD and 1000 AD out of the ruins of Harsha's empire. The Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, the Palas of Bengal and the Pratiharas, who controlled parts of Malwa and Rajasthan. All three were continuously engaged in a struggle over Kanauj. Each of them occupied Kanauj in turn, but finally the wars weakened them and led to their decline. The Rashtrakutas were replaced by the later Chalukyas, the Palas by the Sena dynasty and the Prathihara kingdom broke up into smaller kingdoms.

Puri Jagannathar

Palas

The Pala empire was probably founded in 750 AD. For about a hundred years, from the middle of the 8th to the middle of the 9th century, the Pala rulers dominated Eastern India. The Nalanda university which had been famous all over the eastern world was revived. The Palas had close trade contacts and cultural links with South-East Asia. Early in the twelfth century, they were replaced by the Sena dynasty, which reversed the Palas traditional support of Buddhism and encouraged Hindu orthodoxy.

Rashtrakutas

Of the three empires, the Rashtrakuta's lasted the longest. Not only was it the most powerful of the time, but it also acted as a bridge between north and south India. Amoghavarsha (814 AD - 880 AD) is probably the best remembered of the Rashtrakuta kings. His long reign was distinguished for its royal patronage of Jainism and the flourishing of regional literature. By the end of the tenth century, the second line of the Chalukyas brought the Rashtrakuta Kingdom within their control.