The three most important of the Rajput states in north India were the Gahrwals of Kanauj, the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chauhans of Ajmer. There were other smaller dynasties in different parts of the country, such as the Kalachuris in the area around Jabalpur, the Chandellas in Bundelkhand, the Chalukyas of Gujarat, the Tomars of Delhi, etc. Bengal remained under the control of the Palas and later, the Senas. There was a continuous struggle and warfare between the various Rajput states.

Khajuraho

It was these rivalries which made it impossible for the Rajput rulers to join hands to oust the Ghaznavids from the Punjab. In fact, the Ghaznavids felt strong enough to make raids even up to Ujjain.

Somnath Temple

Mahmud of Ghazni raided the country in 1000 AD, with his first great victory against the Hindushahi kings of Peshawar. The muslim rulers of Multan were the next targets. In a short period of 25 years, he made 17 raids into India. From the Punjab, Mahmud raided Nagarkot in the Punjab hills and Thanesar near Delhi. His most daring raids, however, were against Kanauj in 1018 and against the fabulously rich Somnath temple in Gujarat. No attempt was made to annex any of these areas. The rich spoils from the temples, which were repositories of wealth, helped him to consolidate his rule and embellish Ghazni with palaces and mosques. He died in Ghazni in 1030.

The second Turkish attack was led by Mu'izzu'd-Din Muhammad (also known as Muhammad Ghuri), who conquered Sindh and Lahore in 1182. Soon after, he commenced his attack on the Rajput kingdoms. Prithviraj Chauhan successfully led the Rajputs against Ghuri at the first battle of Tarain in 1191 AD. However, at the second battle in 1192 AD, Prithviraj was defeated and the kingdom of Delhi fell to Muhammad Ghuri. Before Ghuri's assassination in 1206, Turkish control had been established along the whole length of the Ganges. Bihar and Bengal were also overrun.

Iltutmish (1210 AD - 1236 AD), son-in-law of Aibak - succeeded Aibak as the sultan by defeating Aibak's son. Thus, the principle of heredity, of son succeeding his father was checked at the outset. Iltutmish must be regarded as the real consolidator of the Turkish conquests in north India. He gave the new state capital, Delhi, a monarchical form of government and governing class. He introduced Iqta - grant of revenue from a territory in lieu of salary. He maintained a central army and introduced coins of Tanka (silver) and Jital (copper). The famous Qutub Minar was completed during his reign. He despatched an expedition against the Chalukyas of Gujarat but was repelled with losses.

Qutub Minar

The Khiljis used their Afghan descent to win the loyalties of the discontented nobles, who felt that they had been neglected by the earlier sultans. Jalaluddin Khilji (1290 AD - 1296 AD) tried to mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban's rule. He was the first ruler to put forward the view that the state should be based on the willing support of the governed and that since the majority of Indians were Hindus, the state cannot be truly Islamic.

Remains of Tughlaqabad

The Tughlaqs also wished to rule the whole of India. Ghyasuddin's (1320 AD - 1325 AD) campaign to Warrangal, Orissa and Bengal were directed towards this end. He built the city Tughlaqabad near Delhi. By 1324 AD, the territories of the Delhi sultanate reached up to Madurai. However, his economic policy was not consistent with his political ambitions. As the Iqta holders were permitted their earlier perquisites, power gradually slipped back into the hands of nobles.

The Tughlaq dynasty ended soon after the Timurs invasion but the sultanate survived, though it was merely a shadow of its former self. Timurs nominee captured Delhi and was proclaimed the new sultan and the first of Sayyid Dynasty (1414 AD - 1451 AD), which was to rule the earlier half of the fifteenth century. Their rule was short-lived and confined to a radius of some 200 miles around Delhi. They kept the machinery going until a more capable dynasty, the Lodhis, took over. The Lodhis were of pure Afghan origin, and brought an eclipse to the Turkish nobility.

Harihara and Bukka, two brothers from Warangal, whom the Sultan Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq had taken captive, were converted to Islam, and were commissioned to consolidate his rule in Kampila. When the Sultan became weak, they renounced Islam and conquered the territory of the Hoysalas. They founded the Vijayanagara Empire along the river Tungabhadra, in 1336 with the capital Hastinavati (modern Hampi). This Empire protected South India from any further Muslim depredation and brought a Golden Era in South India.

Chariot Temple

Krishna Deva Raya

Krishna Deva Raya: After the death of Deva Raya II in 1446 AD, there was a series of civil wars among the various contenders to the throne. After some time, the throne was usurped by the king's minister, Saluva, who restored the internal law and order. This dynasty also soon ended and a new Tuluva dynasty was founded by Krishna Deva Raya (1509 AD - 1530 AD). Under him the empire emerged as the strongest military power in the south. After his death there was a struggle among his relations as his sons were all minor. Ultimately in 1543, Sadashiva Raya ascended the throne and ruled till 1567, however the real power was in the hand of Rama Raja, who played off the various Muslim powers against one another.

The Mughal period can be called a second classical age in Northern India. In this cultural development, the Indian traditions were amalgamated with the Turko-Iranian culture, brought to the country by the Mughals. The Mughal rulers of India kept up the closest of contacts with Iran and there was a stream of scholars and artists coming over the frontiers to seek fame and fortune at the brilliant court of the Great Mughal, Babar.

Babur

Sher Shah

Babar (1526 AD - 1530 AD):  Founder of the Mughal dynasty, was the king of Kabul. He was invited to India to fight against Ibrahim Lodhi. He was the first king to bring artillery to India and succeeded because of the cavalry that he had brought from central Asia, which was new to the Indian army, He arranged soldiers in such a way that they could be easily moved from one part to the other, He was a good general.

Before his death, he had made himself the master of the Punjab, Delhi and the Gangetic plains as far as Bihar. He wrote Tuzuk-i-Babari an autobiography, containing a lively description of India, in Turkish.

Akbar, The Great (1556 AD - 1605 AD):  He consolidated the empire. He was daring and reckless, an able general, and yet gentle and full of compassion. An idealist and a dreamer, and yet a man of action and a leader of men who roused the passionate loyalty of his followers. He was only thirteen, when he came to the throne. His first conflict was with Hemu, a general of Adil Shah, under whom the Afghan resistance had regrouped. At the second battle of Panipat (1556 AD), Hemu was defeated and Akbar reoccupied Delhi and Agra.

Akbar

Taj Mahal

Shah Jahan (1628 AD - 1658 AD): On his succession to the throne, the first thing he had to face was revolts in Bhundelkhand and the Deccan.The former he put down easily and the latter came into control with difficulty. Meanwhile the Marathas also emerged as a major threat to the authority of the Mughals. The Famous peacock throne and the Red Fort were built by him. The Taj Mahal was also built in his beautiful wife's memory. His failing health started a war of succession amongst his four sons in 1657.